Pink | Elif Mina

Natural hypostasis of the Word

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Saksagan

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August 18, 2020

Nestorian: Therefore the hypostasis which is uncreated and eternal is that of the human nature of Christ. But no one is able to hear and believe that the human nature of a man is created and his hypostasis is uncreated. For then the hypostasis would be alien to the nature, and not in it; and also the nature would be alien to the hypostasis by its not being known and seen in it. For the nature of Paul is not in the hypostasis of angels since his nature is in humanity. Also the hypostases of Gabriel and Michael are not seen and known in the human nature, but every hypostasis is known according to its nature. And every nature which exists is known and seen by sensation, perception, and the contemplation of the mind in its own hypostasis.

Orthodox: There are hypostases which exist naturally in their own natures and we also know that they subsist from them, and they are not able to separate and be different from their natures. But we say that the body of God the Word does not possess the hypostasis of the Word naturally, but by an inseparable unity, and is seen and known in it in a united way. Therefore there is not established or reckoned another hypostasis apart from it. On account of this, the natural hypostasis of the Word is reckoned and counted as a unity, we believe that its body exists and is rightly counted in it, although it is preserved in its nature unchanged. For this reason we are not compelled by the difference of the natures to say that there are two hypostases in the unity of Christ. For if you are compelled to confess two natures and two hypostases in Christ, you are then from necessity condemned to confess four hypostases, and you introduce a quaternity in place of the Trinity in the teaching of the holy Church.

Trinity becomes a Quaternity

It is debated whether the Trinity becomes a Quaternity when it is said that Christ is two hypostases.

The Orthodox says: We wish that you would show us clearly that the Trinity does not become a quaternity when you preach that Christ is in two hypostases.

Nestorian: Do you not yourselves confess that Christ is the Son of God, that He has two natures and that He is one of the Trinity?

Orthodox: Truly we confess that there is in Christ [two natures] and that He is one of the hypostases of the Trinity.

Nestorian: Is Christ one of the Holy Trinity in two natures, or not? And if He is one of the Holy Trinity in two natures, then is the one nature of the Trinity by necessity doubled by providence into two natures because Christ is two natures and one of the Holy Trinity?

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Christians invoked the power

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July 31, 2020

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Carinus ignored him and began to take testimony. A servant swore that the odor of brimstone had filled the air at the time of both fires and several others corroborated his testimony.

“It is well known that the Christians believe in an evil spirit named Lucifer, or the devil, who dwells in a place called Hades, where fires of brimstone are always burning, Carinus said smugly. “I think the connection here is quite obvious to everyone.”

“Then is it your belief that this evil spirit set fire to the palace twice in order to cause the persecution of the Christian sect?” Constantine asked.

Christians invoked the power

It is our contention that the Christians invoked the power of the Evil One against the person and property of the Emperor,” Carinus said.

“Invoked?” Constantine raised his eyebrows. “When the one you call Lucifer is the enemy of the Christians?”

You seem to know much about this accursed sect, Tribune,” Carinus snapped. “Perhaps you can tell us what happened!”

I have already told you I was almost struck by the lightning bolt that set fire to the palace the first time. I did notice an odor in the air, but it was only the pungent smell that is always present when lightning strikes close by. As for the second fire, I was not in the city ”

There were no clouds that night,” Carinus interrupted. “And no thunderclaps.”

Constantine shrugged. “Then no doubt there was no odor either, so your witnesses must be lying.”

The hearing ended quickly but Constantine did not doubt that the story told to Diocletian would name the Christians as criminals. Or that, in the Emperor’s present low state of both spirits and health, he could be persuaded easily that the hated sect was to blame. Nor was Constantine surprised to receive an order to marshal the household troops in the square before the palace the following morning for the purpose of carrying out an edict of the Emperor which would be announced at that time.

A scapegoat had obviously been found, only the formality of naming it publicly remained.

It was late afternoon before Constantine was able to turn over command of the palace to Dacius and ride to the estate of his Uncle Marios overlooking the Gulf of Nicomedia a few miles beyond the boundaries of the capital.

East and the hierarchy of his appointees

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July 31, 2020

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East and the hierarchy of his appointees

Galerius had become emperor in fact, if not in name, during Diocletian’s absence. With the old ruler still ailing, he continued to control the government and thus was able to cast blame for the chaotic conditions where he knew it would please many people most upon the hated Christians. Only an excuse was needed to begin a fullscale persecution that would allow the Caesar of the East and the hierarchy of his appointees who now ruled in Nicome dia to seize the property and wealth of the Christians for themselves. It came in January following Diocletian’s return.

The day had been hot for winter and all afternoon dark clouds had hung over the mountains to the south, accompanied by mutter ings of thunder and occasional flashes of lightning. The air was crackling with the threat of a storm when Constantine posted the guards for the night. A sudden shower of rain forced him to seek shelter in a summerhouse as he was returning from the farthermost guard post to his quarters in the palace. Morosely watching the storm clouds, which seemed a portent of his own prospects since the interview with Maximian in Rome, he was blinded momentarily by a bolt of lightning so near that it struck a tree and glanced off to the comer of the roof covering a wing of the palace, causing a sudden burst of flame.

Moments later servants came

Shouting the alarm as he ran through the courtyard, Constantine paused to soak his cloak in water at a nearby fountain and started beating at the flames. Moments later servants came pouring from the palace with jars and buckets to douse the burning wood with water, quickly extinguishing the fire. The second incident happened while he was off duty one evening, a fire in another wing that burned briskly for about half an hour before it was extinguished.

In the tense atmosphere of the palace, Constantine was not surprised when he was ordered to attend a court of inquiry into the fire. It was presided over by the Chief Chamberlain, a eunuch named Carinus, who had been appointed to the position by Gale rius. Constantine had more than once had differences of opinion with the portly and swarthy chamberlain and did not doubt that his every activity was being faithfully reported by the eunuch to Galerius.

“We have met to consider the latest crime of the Christians in setting fire twice to the palace and attempting to kill our beloved ruler,” Carinus announced at the beginning, giving sentence of guilt even before any evidence was heard.

“Does the Christian god wield thunderbolts?” Constantine asked caustically. “I thought they were the property of Jove.”

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Roman territory Marios protested

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March 25, 2020

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“Must there always be war, and suffering?” Helena had barely spoken during the spirited discussion, except to make the comment about the barbarians.

“We cannot let them push us out of Roman territory,” Marios protested.

“Why not, when it originally belonged to them? We could all dwell together in peace, if we would only respect each other’s rights.”

“What sort of talk is this from the wife of a Caesar and a Filius Augusti?” Marios stopped suddenly. “I mean ”

“You’re right, Helena.” Constantine had the strange feeling that his father was speaking so his Uncle Marios would not say any more, though he had no idea what might have been revealed. “Socrates and Plato knew the answer to maintaining peace more than five hundred years ago, but we are human and, I am afraid, unable to save ourselves most of the time.”

“The Christians believe the Son of God gave up his life as a ransom for anyone who wishes to earn the right to eternal life by believing in him,” Helena said.

“I must confess that I find their beliefs attractive,” Constantius admitted. “Though they are not much different from the principles that govern those of us who worship Mithras. But I am not sure they would be satisfactory as a means of governing an empire.”

“Are you a Christian, Helena?” Marios demanded.

“No, but I could easily be.”

“Don’t,” Marios advised. “Galerius hates them. Now that Diocletian has made him a Caesar, I look for him to start persecuting the followers of the Jewish rabbi any day.”

“But why?” Helena protested.

“Politics! What else? With a new court to establish and people fawning over him, Galerius will have to raise taxes. Nothing takes people’s minds off such things like a good scapegoat and the blacker the better.”

“But why persecute people who are harmless? I’ve never heard a single word in the teachings of Jesus that urges one person to hurt another.”

Diocletian believes dividing the Empire

“Marios is not saying exactly what he means, Helena,” Constantius said quietly. “Diocletian believes dividing the Empire into four prefectures, with a strong ruler in each, will prevent war and bloodshed between those who rule in each region. Perhaps it will, at least as long as he is alive. But Maximian is weak and he has an ambitious son in Maxentius”

A snort of disgust from Marios interrupted him. “You mean a serpent hiding in the grass waiting to strike, don’t you?”

Not every man is fortunate in having such a fine son as Helena has given me,” Constantius agreed, rumpling Constantine’s hair once again. As for Galerius, he no doubt expects to rule the whole Empire after Diocletian abdicates and that means destroying me, by whatever means he can find.”

“I’ll wager it was Galerius who persuaded the Emperor to send you to Gaul,” Marios said. “He knows that nothing is more difficult than conducting a military operation across a stormy body of water like the channel between Gaul and Britain. And if the Rhine garrisons have to be depleted for the expedition against Carausius, the Franks will surely strike southward again.”

Then it is true that more than military reasons are behind your being sent to Gaul and Britain, Constantius?” Helena asked.

Constantine could stand the strained atmosphere

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March 25, 2020

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Constantine could stand the strained atmosphere

On other occasions when Constantius had visited them farther and farther apart of late though they had been the small villa had been filled with merriment and laughter while they lingered in the triclinium, or dining chamber, for wine and sweet cakes after dinner. Tonight, things were different and his mother and father treated each other a little like two people forced to fence with naked blades when neither wished to hurt the other. Finally, after a long silence when no one seemed willing to speak, Constantine could stand the strained atmosphere no longer.

“Where will you reign as Caesar, Father?” he asked. “Here in Illyricum?”

“No, Son. I have been given the Prefecture of Gaul.”

“The land of the barbarians!” Helena cried.

“Gaul is no longer populated by barbarians, Helena,” Constan tius protested. “After all, Julius Caesar conquered it more than three hundred years ago in the days of the Republic.”

“The only trouble was that Caesar was bewitched by a Queen of Egypt named Cleopatra and let the Gauls get out from under his thumb,” Marios said. “No one has quite been able to hold them in since.”

My palace will be at Augusta Treverorum they call it Treves in Gaul,” Constantius explained. “But my main concern will be farther west. The rebel emperor, Carausius, has been boasting that he will soon rule Gaul as well as Britain.”

“Lucullus told us about him,” Constantine said eagerly. “I’ll wager he won’t last long when you start after him, Father.”

“That is my hope.” Constantius reached out to ruffle the boy’s dark hair. “I take it you know the story then?”

“Lucullus says Carausius betrayed the Emperor’s trust after he was put in charge of the Classis Britannia.”

Carausius did take the fleet that guards the Fretum Gallicum the channel between Britain and Gaul and use it to set himself up as emperor,” Constantius agreed.

But why did Emperor Diocletian wait so long to put down a usurper, when you could do it in a few months?” Constantine asked.

“They claim Britain is too far away,” Marios said, “but the real truth is so many of the generals are jealous of your father that they persuaded the Emperor to keep him governor of a province, instead of giving him a prefecture to rule, as the descendant of an emperor deserves.”

Constantius demurred mildly

“Nay,” Constantius demurred mildly. “It was only a little over twenty years ago that Claudius Gothicus defeated the Teutons on the plains before this very city, after they had overrun the country Trier as far south as Macedonia and Greece and even taken Cyprus and Crete. The Danube frontier had to be secured first and then the Rhine frontier had to be brought under control. Now that Maximian has the Rhine firmly in hand, we can turn our attention elsewhere.

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Giving half of the Empire to Maximian

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March 25, 2020

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Diocletian will rue the day he let Galerius Valerius Maximianus get a foot in the door,” Marios said dourly. “It was bad enough when he gave half of the Empire to Maximian. Now he must needs divide it into four parts for his generals to squabble over, when your father could have held everything together himself.”

Constantine was fairly bursting with questions, but they had reached the small villa where he and his mother lived with only a pair of servants. Helena came to the door to greet them and when he saw the light in the eyes of his tall and beautiful mother at the sight of his father and the way Constantius went to take her in his arms for the kiss of greeting, some of the vague feeling of apprehension that had disturbed the boy during the brief conversation with his father began to fade.

Even here at Naissus, a good week’s journey on horseback from Diocletian’s eastern capital of Nicomedia in Bithynia and, it seemed to the boy, half the world away from storied Rome news came quickly. Constantine was quite familiar with the plan of succession devised by Diocletian, when he had become Augustus a little over six years earlier.

Equally militant Sassanid kings in Persia

The shrewd peasant brain of Diocletian had seen that a division of both power and responsibility was necessary if he were to maintain peace from the district of the often rebellious Piets in northern Britain to the domain of the equally militant Sassanid kings in Persia.

Characteristically his solution had been simple. By sharing rule of the Empire’s western half with another general named Maximian who took the surname Herculius to please the soldier s god that was also patron deity of Rome Diocletian hoped to remove the temptation of ambition which had caused so much turmoil over the past century.

But he had strengthened the ambitious plan by retaining final control, as Senior Augustus, while at the same time taking a completely unheardof further step in announcing his intention to rule only for twenty years and forcing his CoEmperor Maximian to agree to relinquish the title of Augustus at the end of a similar period. Completing the plan, Diocletian had also promised to name, well before the end of his twentyyear reign, the two Caesars who would eventually succeed to the title of Augustus. The Emperor had been as good as his word, too, by designating Constantius and Galerius Caesars and, as Filii Augusti, Emperorsto be.

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After Justinian

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March 21, 2020

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Chapter II.

If any among them seek to introduce impious vanities, denying the resurrection or the judgment, or the work of God, or that angels are part of creation, we require them everywhere to be expelled forthwith; that no backslider raise his impious voice to contradict the evident purpose of God. Those who utter such sentiments shall be put to death, and thereby the Jewish people shall be purged of the errors which they introduced.

Chapter III.

We pray that when they hear the reading of the books in one or the other language, they may guard themselves against the depravity of the interpreters, and, not clinging to the literal words, come to the point of the matter, and perceive their diviner meaning, so that they may start afresh to learn the better way, and may cease to stray vainly, and to err in that which is most essential, we mean hope in God. For this reason we have opened the door for the reading of the scriptures in every language, that all may henceforth receive its teaching, and become fitter for learning better things.

For it is acknowledged that he, who is nourished upon the sacred scriptures and has little need of direction, is much readier to discern the truth, and to choose the better path, than he who understands nothing of them, but clings to the name of his faith alone, and is held by it as by a sacred anchor, and believes that what can be called heresy in its purest form is divine teaching.

Epilogue.

This is our sacred will and pleasure, and your Excellency and your present colleague and your staff shall see that it is carried out, and shall not allow the Hebrews to contravene it. Those who resist it or try to put any obstruction in its way, shall first suffer corporal punishment, and then be compelled to live in exile, forfeiting also their property, that they flaunt not their impudence against God and the empire. You shall also circulate our law to the provincial governors, that they learning its contents may enforce it in their several cities, knowing that it is to be strictly carried out under pain of our displeasure.

After Justinian

Circus Factions in Egypt

The Constantinople Circus factions – the Blues and Greens – were not only involved in verbal sporting conflicts – sometimes there was greater violence. And the factions were spread throughout the Empire. Below John, bishop of Nikiu, describes party strife in Egypt shortly before the Persian conquest (c. 608-10)

A striking modern analogy exists with these fifth-seventh century factions. In the modern Scottish city of Glasgow, supporters of Glasgow Rangers Football club were blue and supporters of Glasgow Celtic wear Green.

Within living memory this sports rivalry extended to street violence and politics: the green wearing Celtic fans tended to be Roman Catholic and to vote for the Labour Party; blue dressed Rangers fans were Protestant (indeed the club long would have no Catholics as players), and voted Unionist (ie. Conservative).

BLUES AND GREENS IN EGYPT

And taking advantage of the war between Bonosus and Nicetas [rival Byzantine generals], artisan guilds [the Greens] arose and perpetrated outrages on the Blues and gave themselves shamelessly to pillage and murder.

And when Nicetas was apprised of these facts he had them arrested,and reproved them, and said unto them: “Do no outrage henceforth to any one.” And he established peace amongst them. And he named prefects in all the cities and repressed Plundering and violence, and he lightened their taxes for three years. And the Egyptians were very much attached to him.

TREASON OF BLUES AND GREENS

And Menas who was the leader of the Green faction, and Cosmas the son of Samuel, the leader of the Blues, besieged the city of Misr [Egypt] and harassed the Romans [Byzantines] during the days of the Moslem.

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Justinian (b.483- r.527-d.565)

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March 21, 2020

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Justinian (b.483- r.527-d.565): Novella 146: On Jews

A Permission granted to the Hebrews to read the Sacred Scriptures according to Tradition, in Greek, Latin or any other Language, and an Order to expel from their community those who do not believe in the judgment, the Resurrection, and the Creation of Angels.

Preface.

Necessity dictates that when the Hebrews listen to their sacred texts they should not confine themselves to the meaning of the letter, but should also devote their attention to those sacred prophecies which are hidden from them, and which announce the mighty Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ.

And though, by surrendering themselves to senseless interpretations, they still err from the true doctrine, yet, learning that they disagree among themselves, we have not permitted this disagreement to continue without a ruling on our part. From their own complaints which have been brought to us, we have understood that some only speak Hebrew, and wish to use it for the sacred books, and others think that a Greek translation should be added, and that they have been disputing about this for a long time. Being apprised of the matter at issue, we give judgment in favour of those who wish to use Greek also for the reading of the sacred scriptures, or any other tongue which in any district allows the hearers better to understand the text.

Chapter I.

We therefore sanction that, wherever there is a Hebrew congregation, those who wish it may, in their synagogues, read the sacred books to those who are present in Greek, or even Latin, or any other tongue. For the language changes in different places, and the reading changes with it, so that all present may understand, and live and act according to what they hear.

Thus there shall be no opportunity for their interpreters, who make use only of the Hebrew, to corrupt it in any way they like, since the ignorance of the public conceals their depravity. We make this proviso that those who use Greek shall use the text of the seventy interpreters, which is the most accurate translation, and the one most highly approved, since it happened that the translators, divided into two groups, and working in different places, all produced exactly the same text.

Moreover who can fail to admire those men, who, writing long before the saving revelation of our mighty Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, yet as though they saw its coming with their eyes completed the translation of the sacred books as if the prophetic grace was illuminating them. This therefore they shall primarily use, but that we may not seem to be forbidding all other texts we allow the use of that of Aquila, though he was not of their people, and his translation differs not slightly from that of the Septuagint.

Divine inspiration through the prophets

But the Mishnah, or as they call it the second tradition, we prohibit entirely. For it is not part of the sacred books, nor is it handed down by divine inspiration through the prophets, but the handiwork of man, speaking only of earthly things, and having nothing of the divine in it. But let them read the holy words themselves, rejecting the commentaries, and not concealing what is said in the sacred writings, and disregarding the vain writings which do not form a part of them, which have been devised by them themselves for the destruction of the simple.

By these instructions we ensure that no one shall be penalised or prohibited who reads the Greek or any other language. And their elders, Archiphericitae and presbyters, and those called magistrates, shall not by any machinations or anathemas have power to refuse this right, unless by chance they wish to suffer corporal punishment and the confiscation of their goods, before they yield to our will and to the commands which are better and clearer to God which we enjoin.

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Manuscript once preserved at Spires

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March 21, 2020

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The text comes to us through four manuscripts, now at Oxford, Paris,Vienna and Munich respectively. The last named is of the sixteenth century, the other three of the fifteenth. The four are exact copies, even in form, of a manuscript once preserved at Spires, but lost in the latter part of the sixteenth century. This Spires manuscript contained several other documents besides the Notitia Dignitatum, one of them known to be of the year 825. Thus the earliest possible date for the Spires MS. is fixed, and its palaeographic form, reproduced in the four copies mentioned, shows that it was written not later than the eleventh century.

The Notitia Dignitatum has preserved for us, as no other document has done, a complete outline view of the Roman administrative system in early fifth century. The hierarchic arrangement is displayed perfectly. The division of prefectures, dioceses and provinces, and the rank of their respective governors is set forth at length. The military origin of the whole system appears in the titles of the staff officers, even in those departments whose heads had, since the time of Constantine, been deprived of all military command.

Prefixed to the accounts of some eighty-seven of the chief offices are insignia. These were probably emblazoned on the codicils, or commissions of these officers, and they are illustrative of the dignities and duties of those to whom they were assigned.

Those of the pretorian prefects display a book of mandates reposing on a richly covered table, and flanked by four tapers; also the four-horse chariot and a pillar with the portrait of the emperor or emperors. The insignia of military commanders show the distinctive shields of the several bodies of troops under them. The insignia of the master of the offices in the West are reproduced on p. 28.

A few illustrative examples

This translation gives practically everything of prime importance in the text. The spheres of work and the staffs of the chief officials have been given in full. Omissions are always indicated in the translation, as where lists of troops, after a few illustrative examples, are summarized, without giving the names and locations of the various organizations. From the list of minor officials, of whom there are a considerable number of the same rank, one has been selected as typical of the rest, as, e. g., one duke, one count, one consular, in each half of the empire.

The matter of translation was somewhat difficult, owing to the lack of precedents, especially in the case of the staff officers. The lexicons for the most part say of any one of these designations that it was “the title of a high official of the later empire.”

This is true, but not sufficient for the purposes of this book. A careful study of the functions of these officials, as disclosed in the Theodosian Code, and as commented on by Boecking (see bibliography), has made possible a more exact, if somewhat arbitrary, rendering. An English word which fully expresses the Roman function is, in many cases. hard to find. Sometimes the translation is only approximate, and requires a note.

In general, the effort is made to retain the Roman flavor of the original, and not to translate the official terms of the empire by modern ones which might convey a false implication. For instance, it has been thought better to say -count of the sacred bounties” rather than ” chancellor of the exchequer,” or “grand treasurer,” and “provost of the sacred bedchamber rather than “grand chamberlain.”

In this extext footnotes, marked with *, have been moved from the foot of pages to the end of sections.